/t  //»    7  ' 


1/ 


inly  11.  mo. 


I'.  S.  DEPAR  nil  XT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

BUBE  \r  OF  PLANT  [NDU8TB"Y     Circalai   No.  60. 

it    i.  c,  vi  i.i>\\  \v.  '  bit :  •■(  Bureau.  I 


SUGGESTIONS   TO  SETTLERS    ON    THE 

SANDY  soil.s  OF  THE  COLUMBIA 

ItlVKI!  VALLEY. 


BYKON   HUNTEK, 
Assistant  Aobi<  dltubist,  Office  of  Farm  Manaobmsnt, 

-    o   JAYNE 
Irrigation  Managkr,  Offici  ofExferdcbnt  Stations. 


-10 — 1 


<■•,-*, 


DEPOSITORY 


9 


Bl'REAU  OF  PLANT  INDISTRT. 


Chief  of  Bureau ,  Beverly  T.  Galloway. 
Astistant  ('ItitfoJ Bureau,  G.  Harold  Powell. 
Editor,  J.  E.  Rockwell. 
Cltiij  Clerk,  James  E.  Jones. 


[Cir.  GO] 


II     I'    I 


SI  GGESTIONS  IV)  SETTLERS  ON  THE  SANDY  SOILS 
OF  rill-:  COLUMBIA  RIVER  VALLEY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Many  people  are  coming  t"  the  irrigated  districts  of  the  Pacific 
Northwest  with  the  view  of  engaging  in  commercial  orcharding. 
Being  unfamiliar  with  the  soils  and  climatic  conditions  of  the  West 
and  lacking  experience  in  fruit  growing  and  irrigation  farming,  they 
are  often  at  ;i  loss  to  know  how  t"  proceed  with  the  development  of 
their  farms.  The  time  and  expense  required  to  bring  an  orchard 
into  profitable  bearing  make  it  verj  important  thai  the  beginning 
be  properlj   made. 

The  following  discussion  of  crops  and  methods  of  handling  the  soil 
i-  intended  primarily  as  a  guide  for  the  new  settler  who  has  not  yet 
acquired  experience  in  farming  under  the  conditions  that  prevail  in 
the  Columbia  River  Valley.  The  limitations  of  this  circular  forbid 
detailed  discussions,  and  all  that  is  here  attempted  is  to  point  out 
some  of  the  essentials  to  l>e  observed. 

In  preparing  these  suggestions  the  results  obtained  by  the  best 
farmers  in  the  oldest  districts  of  the  region  under  discussion  have 
been  carefully  considered.  While  these  are  probably  the  safest 
guide  obtainable  at  the  present  time,  the  development  of  these  dis- 
tricts is  not  sufficiently  advanced  to  indicate  definitely  just  what  may 
be  most  successful.  Much  yet  remains  to  l>e  ascertained  as  to  the 
l>e-t  methods  of  irrigating  and  of  building  up  the  productiveness  of  the 
soil,  as  well  as  to  determine  the  crops  and  the  varieties  of  fruit  that 
will  pay  best . 

The  new  settler  should  not  be  in  too  greal  haste  to  gel  a  commercial 
orchard  planted.  It  is  far  better  to  grow  alfalfa  or  clover  for  one 
or  more  years  and  in  the  meantime  decide  upon  the  kind  and  varieties 
of  fruit  to  be  grown  than  to  plant  immediately  and  run  the  risk  of 
planting  thai  which  i-  not  desirable. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  REGION. 

The  principal  region  to  which  this  paper  applies  i-  the  low  sandy 
lands  <>f  the  Columbia  River  Valley  lying  between  the  Dalle-.  (  Oregon, 
and  Priesl  Rapids,  Washington.  There  are  many  other  tracts  of 
similar  -oil  along  the  Columbia  River  above  Priesl  Rapids,  ami  -till 

Kir.  <;<i]  3 


4  SUGGESTIONS   TO   SETTLERS    IX    COLUMBIA   RIVER   VALLEY. 

others  along  the  Snake  River,  to  which  it  also  applies.  Irrigation 
projects  are  now  under  way  here  that  when  completed  will  furnish 
water  for  considerably  over  100, 000  acres  of  land.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Umatilla  Project,  all  of  this  land  is  being  watered  by 
private  enterprise.  While  some  of  the  land  to  be  irrigated  is  com- 
paratively level,  the  most  of  it  is  gently  rolling.  The  elevation 
above  sea  level  varies  from  200  to  600  feet. 

The  surface  soil  varies  in  depth  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet. 
It  is  largely  formed  from  rather  coarse  materiablaid  down  in  a  lake 
that  once  occupied  portions  of  northern  Oregon  and  southern  Wash- 
ington. Since  the  disappearance  of  the  lake  the  surface  soil  has  been 
greatly  modified  by  the  action  of  the  wind  and  the  river.  Consider- 
able fine  material  has  been  blown  ami  washed  in  from  the  surround- 
ing higher  levels.  The  surface  soil,  therefore,  is  a  mixture  of  sand 
and  line  material.  In  some  places  the  fine  material  predominates, 
while  in  others  the  coarse  sand  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  surface 
soil. 

The  subsoil  is  not  uniform.  It  generally  consists  of  a  mixture  of 
coarse,  dark  sand  and  smooth  gravel.  Frequently  the  gravel  is 
cemented  together.  In  some  localities  where  the  gravel  is  absent 
the  coarse  dark  sand  is  20  or  more  feet  deep.  In  other  places  the 
subsoil  consists  of  alternate  layers  of  --and  and  gravel. 

CLIMATE  OF  THE  REGION. 

The  low  lands  of  the  Columbia  River  Valley  have  an  arid,  tem- 
perate climate.  The  normal  annual  precipitation  for  the  town  of 
Umatilla,  Oreg.,  is  8.59  inches,  while  that  for  Kennewiek.  Wash.,  is 
approximately  6  inches.  Practically  all  of  the  rain  falls  during  late 
autumn,  winter,  and  early  spring.  Throughout  much  of  the  summer 
the  temperature  is  high,  but  owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere 
the  heat  is  seldom  oppressive.  The  nights,  however,  are  compara- 
tively cool.  The  winters  are  mild,  although  the  mercury  occasionally 
goes  below  zero.  From  the  first  of  March  until  the  last  of  June  is 
considered  the  windy  season.  The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the 
west  and  southwest.  The  velocity  of  the  wind  is  often  sufficient  to 
cause  sandy  soils  to  drift  when  bare  and  unprotected.  There  is  very 
little  high  wind  from  the  first  of  July  until  the  last  of  February. 

The  growing  season  in  the  Columbia  River  Valley  is  long,  this  being 
the  earliest  district  in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  A  careful  study  of  the 
reports  of  the  United  States  "Weather  Bureau  shows  that  all  of  eastern 
Oregon  and  eastern  Washington  is  subject  to  killing  frosts  during  the 
month  of  April.  These  frosts  occur  with  remarkable  regularity  along 
the  Columbia  River.  The  tender  varieties  of  fruit  are  often  more 
severely  injured  at  low  altitudes  along  the  Snake  and  Columbia  rivers 
than  in  localities  with  higher  altitudes.     This  is  due  partly  to  poor  air 

[Cir.  00] 


- E8TIONS    I"    SETTLERS    IN    ><i|i  \  1  1 . 1  \    RIVEB    VALLEY.             5 

drainage  and  partly  to  the  facl  thai  the  fruit  blossoms  earlier  than 
in  the  higher  altitudes  and  i>  in  a  condition  to  be  injured  when  fro 
occur. 

The  following  table  lti ^ <•■-  the  dates  and  temperatures  "I  32    F.  or 

lower  during  the  month  <>l  April  for  the  |>a->i  li\  ■ 

||  of  April,  in 

I   \l  \  I  n  I   \ .  i  'i                       KENNBWICK,  WASH  u\n                      L8H. 

April  10    12    I                 April  April  I.  30 

April  12   31     F                 April   1,25    I  April   I,  29    1 

I.  31     I'  April  10,  .',     r. 

April   in.  25     F  April   11,31°  F. 

April  II.  27     F. 

Vpril28    12    I 

April    :.    12     I                       April    I,  29     I  April   L0,    •;      I 
April   12     '■"     I                     April   10     10     I' 
April  I .;.  30    I' 

April  28,  1 1    I'                April  19,   H)    I  April  Hi.  30    F. 

April  29,  29    F.               April  20,  32    I  April  11,  :'.l     F. 

April  30,  32    I'                 \pnl  24,   12    I  April  20,  ::i     I 

April  27,  25    F.  April  28,  21     I' 

April  28,  25    I  April  29,  27°  F. 
April  ."'.  :'.l     I 

L908 

April   I.  30     I                       April   I.  _"•     I  April  I .  2 1     I' 

April  i.   :j    I                    April  2,  32°  1  April 

April  ;.  28     I'                     April  I     25     I  April   I.  30     I' 

April  8,   '.-'     I                     April  April  "..  20     I 

April  25,   10    I  April  8,  32    F. 


April  _'<■   32    F. 


April  5,   in     F                    April  7.  24  April  I.  32     I. 

April  '..  J'.    F.                 April  B,  2  April  5,  :'•"    F. 

April  v   M)    F                  April  9    .1  I                   April  B,  28    F. 

Ai.nl  II.  32     F                  \pnl  II.  ."'  I'                April  Iv 

April  Is.  25    F                ipril  16   31  I'               April  301 

April  19,   K)    I                    \pnl  I-    :;  1'. 

April  21,  29    F.                 April  19    2  I  I 

April  21,  26  F. 

April  30,  32  F. 


[Cir.60] 


6  SUGGESTIONS   TO   SETTLERS    IN    COLUMBIA    HIVKK   VALLEY. 

The  early  season  in  the  low  lands  of  the  Columbia  River  Valley  is 
a  great  advantage  on  the  one  band,  since  it  enables  the  farmer  to 
obtain  the  highest  prices  for  early  vegetables,  small  fruits,  melons, 
and  similar  products.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tender  varieties  of 
fruit,  such  as  strawberries,  peaches,  apricots,  and  cherries,  are  more 
apt  to  be  injured  by  the  late  frosts  than  they  would  be  were  the  alti- 
tude higher  and  the  season  shorter. 

SELECTING  A  FARM. 

In  selecting  a  farm  in  one  of  the  irrigated  districts  in  the  Columbia 
River  Valley  a  deep,  fine-grained  soil  with  good  drainage  is  very  desir- 
able. II  the  soil  is  deep  the  land  can  usually  be  so  graded  that  it  can 
be  irrigated  and  cultivated  with  the  greatest  possible  ease.  If  con- 
siderable grading  is  done  on  a  shallow  soil  much  damage  may  resull 
by  bringing  the  gravel  too  near  the  surface  where  the  higher  areas 
have  been  cut  down.  A  deep,  fine-grained  soil  will  also  require  much 
less  water  than  a  shallow  or  coarse,  sandy  soil.  When  possible  sub- 
soils containing  cement  gravel  should  be  avoided,  for  they  seriously 
interfere  with  drainage  and  with  the  root  development  of  plants. 
The  depth  of  the  soil  can  easily  be  determined  by  the  \ise  of  a  post- 
hole  digger. 

While  the  lower  lands  usually  have  the  best  soils  and  produce  the 
best  crops  in  the  beginning,  it  must  be  remembered,  when  selecting  a 
farm,  that  they  are  much  nunc  likely  than  the  higher  areas  to  be 
damaged  in  the  future  by  the  rise  of  seepage  water  and  alkali.  The 
higher  areas  are  also  much  freer  from  frost,  for  the  greater  elevation, 
if  only  a  few  feet,  permits  the  cold  air  to  settle  to  the  lower  levels. 

A  prospective  settler  should  duly  consider  the  amount  of  water  to 
be  supplied  per  acre,  the  ability  of  the  company  to  deliver  the  water, 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  irrigating  system.  Especially  is  the  latter 
important  in  cases  where  the  operating  company  ceases  to  have  any 
interest  in  the  irrigation  system  when  the  land  and  water  rights  are 
all  sold. 

IMMEDIATE   EXPENDITURES   NECESSARY   IN   CONNECTION   WITH 
THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  A  FARM. 

The  immediate  expense  of  developing  raw  land  in  an  irrigated 
district  is  considerable.  Many  people  undertake  too  much  and 
exhaust  their  resources  before  paying  returns  can  be  obtained  from 
the  land.  The  new  settler  should  carefully  consider  the  following 
items  of  expense  and  make  his  plans  according  to  his  resources. 

The  price  of  land,  with  the  water  light,  varies  from  $200  to  s.!()0 
per  acre,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil  and  the  distance  from 
transportation  facilities.  Some  land  may  be  found  that  is  cheaper 
than  $200  an  acre,  but  it  is  very  scarce.     When  sold  separately  from 

[Cir.  00] 


BUGGB8TION8    K)  8ETTLER8    in    COL1    MBIA    RIVEB    VALLEY.  7 

the  land,  the  water  righl  costs  From  S60  to  1100  an  acre  Both  the 
land  and  the  water  right  are  usuall}  sold  on  the  installment  plan. 
The  annual  water  fee  or  maintenance  charge  varies  From  vi  to  12  50 
per  acre.  When  the  water  is  pumped  l>\  private  plan!  the  cost  is 
usuall)  more  i  han  12.50  an  acre. 

Clearing  the  land  of  sagebrush  costs  From  12.50  to  $5  per  acre, 
plowing  From  $2  to  ling  from  ^">  to  $25,  and  fluming  From  sin 

to  $15  an  acre.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  the  expense  of  Fencing, 
aeeding,  and  irrigating  the  first  year.  In  mosl  cases  ii  will  be  nec- 
ii\  to  provide  the  dwelling  house,  stable,  team,  cow,  poultry, 
wagon,  tools,  and  other  equipment.  No  returns  should  !>'•  expected 
From  tin*  land  the  first  year,  and  I >u t  little  the  second  year.  During 
this  time  the  living  expenses  and  countless  other  items  of  expense 
must  be  met . 

IRRIGATION. 

In  a  region  like   the  '>n<'   under  discussion  in   this  paper,   where 

iculture   is   altogether  dependent    upon    irrigation,    the   use   and 

application  of  water  are  verj  important  phases  of  farm  management. 

In  order  t<>  secure  economj   of  labor  and  economj   and  efficiency   of 

water,  careful  attention  must  be  given  to  manj  details. 

OB  U)ING 

The  land  to  be  irrigated  should  l>c  so  graded  that  the  minor  irregu- 
larities will  l>r  removed,  leaving  no  knolls  <>\  <t  which  water  will  not 
llou  and  no  depressions  into  which  it  can  collect  to  form  puddles. 
This  \\<>rk  requires  painstaking  care  and  i-  often  expensive,  l>ni  it  is 
absolutely  essential  to  satisfactorj  irrigation,  [f  one  can  not  afford 
to  grade  his  land  properly  he  had  better  not  attempt  to  irrigate  it. 
The  cost  of  grading  is  usuallj  less  where  the  field  has  a  moderate 
slope,  for  some  fall  is  necessarj  to  carry  t  he  w  ater  forw  ard.a 

Under  m>  circumstances  should  trees  and  crops  of  a  permanent 
character  be  planted  before  the  grading  is  well  done.  While  thor- 
ough preparation  of  the  soil  for  irrigation  is  \rr\  essential,  it  must  be 
remembered  thai  little  grading  can  !><•  done  if  the  soil  i-  shallow,  and 
without  grading  irrigation  is  impracticable  except  where  the  soil  is 
naturally    verj   even.' 


Bulletins  N 
entitled  .1    Information   for   Beginner  ind   "litigation   oi 

Alfalfa,  .;„>n  appli  the 

riculture,  W .« - !  D.  ( 

■  ■•■  Bull<  ;::i-  188  and  -1 1.  I  I  lions, 

•  ntitied  '  .  ikima  Valley,  Wash 

and  "Irrigation  in  the  S  ely;  also  Farmere'  Bullet 

■■  :il  Information  for  Beginners  in  Irrigation"  and  "In 
f  Alfalfa,"  respecth  • 
[Ctr 


8  SUGGESTIONS   TO   SETTLERS    IX    COLUMBIA    HIVER   VALLEY. 

HEAD    DITCHES   OR   FLUKES. 

Where  the  soil  is  fine  enough  to  prevent  undue  loss  by  seepage, 
head  ditches  may  he  used  from  which  to  distribute  the  water  into  the 
furrows,  hut  where  the  soil  is  lighl  and  sandy  and  the  subsoil  is  gravelly 
or  composed  of  coarse  sand,  flumes  should  be  used  almost  invariably. 
They  are  more  expensive  in  the  beginning  but,  considering  the  saving 
of  water  and  the  greater  facility  in  handling  it,  are  much  cheaper  in 
the  end.  It  is  difficult  to  regulate  properly  the  distribution  of  water 
from  ditches;  on  steep  grades  they  cut  deeply  and  on  flat  ones  they 
are  constantly  filling  with  silt  and  drifting  sand.  Practically  all  of 
these  difficulties  are  obviated  by  the  use  of  flumes.  Cedar  is  the 
material  best  suited  for  their  construction.  Fir  costs  less  hut  splits 
badly  and  checks  from  exposure  to  the  sun.  Flumes  should  he  kept 
as  low  as  possible  to  lessen  the  liability  of  blowing  over  and  to  prevent 
the  washing  of  the  soil  by  the  water  dropping  from  a  considerable 
height  into  the  furrows  below. 

FURROWS. 

Where  the  soil  is  sandy  and  coarse,  water  moves  downward  from 
the  furrow  by  gravity  much  more  rapidly  than  it  does  to  the  side 
by  capillarity.  If  the  furrows  are  too  far  apart  a  great  deal  of  water 
will  pass  into  the  gravelly  subsoil  and  be  lost  before  the  spa< 
between  the  furrows  become  properly  wet.  By  digging  trenches  at 
right  angles  across  the  furrows  at  several  points  soon  after  irrigating, 
some  idea  may  be  gained  as  to  the  relative  rapidity  with  which 
water  penetrates  the  soil  below  and  to  each  side  of  the  irrigation 
furrow.  In  this  way  the  irrigator  can  determine  approximately  the 
distance  apart  the  furrows  should  be  for  any  particular  soil.  The  aim 
should  be  to  have  them  close  enough  together  for  the  spaces  between 
the  furrows  to  become  wet  by  the  time  the  water  has  penetrated  to 
the  porous  subsoil  below.  With  soil  2  feet  deep,  water  will  probably 
reach  the  subsoil  before  it  will  wet  the  spaces  between  furrows  2  feet 
apart.  When  this  is  the  case  they  should  be  closer  together,  probably 
a  foot  or  18  inches  apart. 

Experience  has  shown,  also,  that  the  furrows  should  be  much 
shorter  in  the  sandy  soils  of  the  Columbia  River  Valley  than  those 
commonly  used  on  finer,  heavier  soils.  A  square  10-acre  tract 
should  have  three  or  four  lines  of  flumes  crossing  it,  making  the 
furrows  220  feet  long  with  three  lines  of  flumes,  or  165  feet  long  with 
four.  In  a  coarse,  sandy  soil  there  is  too  much  water  lost  by  seepage 
near  the  flumes  or  head  ditches  when  the  furrows  are  long. 

SIZE    OF    STREAM    TO    USE. 

Water  is  supplied  to  the  irrigating  furrows  from  holes  in  the  sides 
of  the  flumes  or  from  lath  spouts  in  the  hanks  of  the  head  ditches. 

[Cir.  60] 


BU0GE8TION6    in   SI   Mill:-    IN    COL1    MBIA    RIVEB    VALLEY.  '.> 

There  Bhould  be  a  hole  for  each  furrow ,  because  il  requires  too  much 
attention  i<>  divide  a  Btream  and  divert  the  water  into  two  or  three 
furrows.  The  size  of  the  Btream  t'>  run  in  the  furrows  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  -oil  Mini  the  grade  "f  tin-  furrow  Generally 
speaking,  the  coarser  the  -oil  and  the  steeper  the  grade  the  smaller 
should  be  the  Btream.  When  first  beginning  t<>  irrigate,  it  is  best 
to  turn  on  all  <>f  the  water  that  the  furrow  will  ' -aiT\  without  washing 
too  badly,  in  order  t<>  get  the  entire  length  "f  tli<'  furrow  wel  as 
quicklj  as  possible.  The  stream  ma}  then  be  reduced  until  there 
will  he  no  waste  of  water  at  the  «-ii< I  of  the  furrow.  While  a  -mall 
stream  will  usuallj  Lri\e  the  best  results,  tlie  irrigator  must  learn 
from  experience  the  size  most  satisfactory  for  lii-  conditions.  The 
aim  Bhould  be  to  apply  the  water  as  quicklj  as  possible,  gel  the 
ground  evenlj  moistened,  and  prevent  the  washing  of  the  soil  in 
the    furrow-   and    the   loss   of   water   l>\    seepage. 

W  II  i.\      I  c »    [BRIGAT1 

trrigation  in  the  Columbia  River  Valley  should  begin  aboul  April 
1 ,  and  for  most  crop-  on  -and \  Boil  frequenl  applicat  ions  are  necessary 
during  the  growing  season.  Ever]  two  weeks  is  perhaps  none  top 
often  to  irrigate  orchard-,  alfalfa,  and  clover.     When  a  field  i-  being 

led  to  alfalfa  or  elover  it  i-  nece  — ar\  to  keep  the  -oil  moistened 
at  all  times  until  the  crop  i-  well  established.  Garden  crop-  ma\ 
require  water  everj  week  or  oftener.  During  the  picking  season 
-traw  herrie-  are  u-uall\  watered  ever}  day.  or  ever]  other  da\  at 
least,     After  the  crop  i-  removed  thej  receive  only  enough  water  to 

keep  the  vine-  alive. 

The  irrigation  of  the  orchard  in  the  late  fall  keeps  up  the  growth 
of  the  trees  too  long  and  subjects  them  to  the  danger  of  winter- 
killing. A-  a  rule  no  water  should  be  applied  after  September  15. 
Growth  will  then  he  checked  early  enough  for  the  wood  to  harden 
before  W inter. 

In  tin1  spring  of  the  year  when  -t  raw  herrie-  are  in  bloom  and  liable 

to  injury  from  frost,  the  danger  tna\  he  lessened  by  running  water 
between  the  row-.  Experience  ha-  shown  that  the  loss  from  frost 
i-  much  less  where  the  ground  i-  kept  moist  by  irrigation  than  it  i- 

iill  dry  ground,   provided   the  temperature  i-  hut    a   few    degrees  below 

freezing  for  a  short  period  only. 

QUANTITl     OF    WATEH     1"    I  -1 

With  a  deep  -oil  and  subsoil,  heavy  but  infrequent  irrigation  is 
recommended.  But  in  a  region  like  the  Columbia  River  Valley, 
with  -oil  and  subsoil  generally  of  low  water-holding  capacity,  fvr- 
•  pient    light    application-   of   water    must    necessarily    be    the    rule. 

;      i  ,r    GO      1"   2 


10         SUGGESTIONS   TO   SETTLERS    IN    COLUMBIA   RIVER   VALLEY. 

Every  irrigator  should  endeavor  to  learn  just  how  much  water  is 
required  to  (ill  his  soil.  For  most  of  the  soils  of  this  region  from  2\ 
to  4  inches  will  be  sufficient  for  each  irrigation  if  quickly  applied. 
To  use  more  water  than  the  soil  will  hold  is  the  prevalent  tendency 
and  practice.  This  fact  is  plainly  evidenced  by  the  presence  of  ponds 
of  water  and  the  need  of  drainage  in  some  of  the  irrigated  districts 
along  the  Columbia  River.  This  seepage  water  is  largely  due  to 
excessive  irrigation.  As  the  water  percolates  through  the  soil  it 
doubtless  carries  in  solution  nitrogen  and  other  essential  plant  food 
that  it  will  cost  time  and  money  to  replace.  Where  pumping  plants 
are  used  the  raising  of  more  water  than  is  required  also  causes  a 
heavy  loss.  If  overirrigation  continues  to  he  practiced,  expensive 
drainage  systems  will  have  to  he  constructed  sooner  or  later  to 
carry  the  water  back  to  the  river. a 

CHECKING    LOSSES    OF    WATER. 

Water  is  mainly  lost  in  two  ways,  viz.  by  percolation  into  the  sub- 
soil and  by  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Frequent  light  irrigation  materially  reduces  the  loss  from  percola- 
tion, but  increases  the  loss  by  evaporation.  Loss  from  percolation 
may  also  be  reduced  by  increasing  the  water-holding  capacity  of 
the  soil.  This  is  done  by  plowing  under  green  manure  and  cover 
crops  and  by  heavy   applications  of  stable  manure. 

With  a  fine  firm  soil,  thorough  cultivation  as  soon  as  possible 
after  irrigating  is  the  most  effective  way  of  checking  evaporation. 
Where  the  soil  is  light  and  sandy,  however,  clean  cultivation  keeps 
it  too  loose  and  subjects  it  to  the  danger  of  drifting.  Under  these 
conditions  mulches  of  stable  manure,  straw,  and  other  litter  will 
be  found  very  beneficial  in  checking  evaporation. 

DISTRIBUTION"    OF    WATER. 

The  amount  of  water  which  most  irrigation  companies  agree  to 
deliver  to  the  farmer  is  1  cubic  foot  per  second  for  each  160  acres  of 
land.  During  the  irrigating  season  of  seven  months  (April  1  to  No- 
vember 1)  this  amounts  to  about  32  inches  in  depth.  Since  little 
irrigation  is  ordinarily  done  after  October  1,  27  inches  would  be  ap- 
proximately the  amount  supplied.  Up  to  the  present  time,  with  but 
a  small  percentage  of  the  land  under  the  various  irrigation  systems  in 
cultivation,  the  companies  have  quite  generally  supplied  more  water 
than  their  contracts  required  them  to  deliver.  But  as  the  acreage  of 
cultivated  land  increases  from  year  to  year  and  the  demand  for  water 

"For  records  of  the  amount  of  water  used  on  various  Ctopa  at  Kennewick.  Wash., 
in  1906,  see  Bulletin  188,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
entitled  "Irrigation  in  the  Yakima  Valley,  Washington." 
[Cir.  60] 


SUGGESTIONS    lO  SETTLERS    IN    COL1    Ml; I  \    R1VEB    VALLEY.  11 

becomes  greater,  a  stricter  adherence  to  the  terms  "f  the  contract 
will  doubtless  I"'  found  necessary.  This,  in  turn,  mil  necessitate  a 
more  economical  use  of  water  and  some  modifications  in  the  present 
met  hods  <>f  its  dist  ribution. 

The  contracts  of  most  companies  call  for  a  continuous  deliven  of 
the  \\:iii t.  Where  Bmall  holdings  are  the  rule,  thi-*  makes  it  difficult 
to  use  either  labor  or  water  economically.  The  Bupprj  for  a  10-acre 
tract  is  ordinarily  one-sixteenth  of  .•»  cubic  foot  per  second.  This  is  b 
very  small  stream  and  is  sufficient  for  onlj  a  \<-r\  few  furrows.  T<> 
irrigate  a  10-acre  tracl  with  a  constant  stream  i»f  this  size  would 
require  altogether  t » >« >  much  time  on  the  part  of  the  irrigator,  In- 
Btead  of  delivering  a  cont  inuous  ^i  ream  to  each  i  ract  <»f  land,  arrange- 
ments should  be  made  for  Beveral  farmers  to  receive  their  water  in 
rotation.  Should  four  farmers  make  such  an  arrangement,  each 
would  receive  his  full  amount  of  water  and  be  able  to  irrigate  hi^  land 
in  one-fourth  of  the  time  required  with  a  continuous  stream.  This 
would  give  u  much  more  economical  and  efficient  application  of  the 

water. 

CLEARING  AND  SEEDING  NEW  LAND. 

In  various  localities  of  the  Columbia  River  Valley  considerable 
damage  has  been  done  by  attempting  to  clear  and  Beed  Bandy  land 
during  the  windy  season.  When  the  surface  soil  is  stirred  by  grub- 
bing the  sagebrush,  plowing,  and  leveling,  the  soil  drifts  and  blows 
very  easily.  The  drifting  sand  may  cut  of!"  all  vegetation  such  a<  rye, 
wheat,  clover,  and  alfalfa.  A  sand  1>I<>\\  caused  in  this  way  is  an 
injur}  not  only  to  the  owner  of  the  land  hut  also  to  his  neighbor  on 
whose  farm  the  Band  drifts.  (See  fig.  I.)  A  still  further  injury  is 
caused  by  the  filling  of  the  irrigation  ditches.  When  this  occurs  the 
water  must  be  turned  off  until  the  ditches  can  be  cleared.  Thus  the 
whole  community  may  Buffer  by  the  mistake  of  a  single  person.  The 
new  Bel  tier  w  ill  do  well,  therefore,  to  exercise  a  great  deal  of  judgment 
in  clearing  his  land  and  bringing  it  into  cultivation. 

Where  there  i>  danger  of  the  soil  blowing,  the  safest  time  to  Beed 
new  land  is  during  late  summer  or  earl]  autumn.  The  sagebrush 
may  he  removed  at  any  time  during  the  year  provided  the  surface  soil 
is  not  stirred.  During  dune.  Jury,  and  August  the  land  may  be 
graded  and  the  flumes  and  ditches  prepared  for  irrigating. 

During  the  warmest  weather  <>f  summer  the  surface  soil  dries  oul 
verv  quickly  and  becomes  very  hot.  Seeding  might  be  done  at  any 
time  after  the  windy  season  is  over  were  it  not  that  the  young  plants 
often  wither  and  dry  uj>  a>  they  grow  up  through  this  hot  surface  l:iv  er 
of  soil.  For  this  reason  it  is  safest  to  delay  the  seeding  until  the 
warmest  weather  is  over  and  the  surface  -oil  has  cooled  a  little. 

When  the  hot  tot  weather  is  over,  usually  by  the  last  of  August,  the 
land  to  he  sown  is  thoroughly  irrigated,  idter  which  any  releveliniz 

[dr.  SO] 


12 


SUGGESTIONS   TO    SETTLERS    IN    COLUMBIA    BIVEB    VALLEY. 


that  may  be  necessary  is  done  immediately.  While  the  soil  is  still 
moist  from  50  to  60  pounds  of  rye  and  about  15  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed 
per  acre  should  be  sown  with  a  grain  drill  to  insure  proper  covering  of 
the  seed.  The  drill  should  he  provided  with  a  <;rass-seeder  attach- 
ment that  runs  the  grain  and  alfalfa  seed  out  together.  Because  of 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  surface  of  this  sandy  soil  dries,  the  drill 
should  be  set  to  cover  the  seed  about  3  inches  deep.  At  this  season 
of  the  year  the  weather,  soil,  and  water  are  all  warm,  and  the  rye  and 
alfalfa  start  quickly  provided  the  soil  is  kept  moist.  In  starting 
alfalfa  in  the  autumn  it  must  be  sown  early  enough  to  make  sufficient 
growth  to  withstand  the  fall  and  winter  frosts. 

Instead  of  sowing  rye  and  alfalfa  at  the  same  time,  the  rye  majr  be 
sown  first.     When  this  is  done  the  land  is  first  irrigated,  regraded  if 


Fig.  1.— Two  tracts  of  land  showing  theresults  of  seeding  b 
The  young  .'-acre  orchard  on  Ihe  left  was  thoroughly  irrigated  September  15, 1908,  and  immediately  sown 
to  wheat  and  hairy  vetch.  The  wheat  and  vetch  germinated  quickly,  made  a  good  growth  before  winter 
came  on,  and  kept  the  soil  from  blowing.  The  5-acre  tract  to  the  right  of  the  fence  was  cleared,  leveled, 
and  sown  to  rye  during  December,  1908.  This  was  too  late  in  the  season,  for  the  rye  grew  very  little 
during  the  winter,  and  completely  blew  out  when  the  first  high  wind  came  about  March  1.  On  April  1 
when  the  photograph  shown  in  this  illustration  was  taken,  the  sand  had  drifted  to  the  third  row  of  trees 
in  the  orchard  on  the  left. 

necessary,  and  sown  to  rye  some  two  or  three  weeks  before  the  time 
to  sow  the  alfalfa.  As  soon  as  the  rye  is  3  or  4  inches  high  the  alfalfa 
is  sown  with  a  grain  drill.  The  irrigation  furrows  are  then  laid  out  and 
the  land  irrigated  again.  There  are  two  principal  reasons  for  sowing 
the  rye  first:  (1)  By  the  time  the  lye  is  3  or  4  inches  high  the  surface 
soil  will  be  pretty  well  filled  with  roots  and  will  not  wash  so  easily  in 
the  irrigating  furrows;  (2)  if  the  ground  is  filled  with  roots  and  cov- 
ered with  a  growth  of  rye,  the  surface  soil  will  not  drift  so  easily  and 
the  young  alfalfa  plants  will  be  less  liable  to  be  cut  oiF  by  the  blowing 
of  the  sand.  This  is  very  important  in  seeding  steep  sandy  Land  that 
it  is  difficult  to  irrigate. 

[Cir.  60] 


SUGGESTIONS    I"   SETTLERS    IN    COL1    Mill  \    RIVEH    VALLEY.  1  .'i 

When  ii  is  not  possible  to  Lr«i  alfalfa  01  clove)  sown  in  1 1 1«-  early 
fall,  rye  ma)  !><•  Bown  alone  during  October.  If  the  land  i  irrigated 
before  the  rye  is  Bown  ii  should  make  a  good  lti ■  »\\  1 1>  before  winter. 

With  the  land  well  occupied  l>\  rye,  alfalfa  may  be  sown  in  il arly 

spring  j •  i — t  ;i->  Boon  a^  water  is  available  for  irrigating  Aiter  sowing 
the  alfalfa  in  the  rye  with  a  grain  drill,  the  irrigating  furrows  are 
marked  off  and  the  land  irrigated  immediately. 

Where  the  Boil  is  heavier  and  there  is  little  danger  "I"  blowing,  il  is 
best  to  use  oats  or  wheal  for  the  nurse  crop  instead  of  rye,  because 
they  make  better  hay  than  does  rye.  lint  where  the  ^>il  is  liable  to 
drift,  rye  gives  the  best  satisfaction,  because  it  is  hardier  and  will 
stand  the  cutting  effect  of  the  drifting  sand  better  than  anj  other  of 
our  cereal  crops. 

Where  there  is  no  danger  of  the  soil  drifting,  greater  returns  are 
obtained  the  first  year  bj  sowing  alfalfa  alone.  Nurse  crops  are 
recommended  only  where  it  is  difficult  to  start  clover  or  alfalfa  without 
protection.  Many  prefer  clover  t<>  alfalfa  where  the  crop  is  t'>  occupy 
the  land  l>nt  a  year  or  two.  Where  such  preferences  prevail  clovei 
may  be  started  by  precisely  the  same  methods  used  in  seeding  alfalfa. 

When  a  nurse  crop  is  sown  with  clover  or  alfalfa  it  is  usually  cut 
with  a  mower  jus!  after  the  grain  has  jointed  or  headed  <»nt.  Thai 
which  is  cut  may  be  used  for  haj  or  left  on  the  ground  to  serve  as 
a  mulch,  as  necessity  may  demand.  The  sickle  bar  of  the  mower 
should  be  set  to  run  high,  in  order  to  out  off  as  little  as  possible  of  the 
alfalfa  or  clover. 

ALFALFA  AND  DAIRYING. 

Since  most  of  the  settlers  in  the  irrigated  districts  along  the 
Columbia  River  have  limited  means,  they  wish  to  know  how  the  quick- 
est and  safest  returns  ma\  be  secured.  We  have  asked  this  question 
of  a  great  many  who  have  had  experience  in  the  matter,  and  the 
answer  is  almost  invariably  '*  Alfalfa  and  dairying."  There  are 
several  reasons  why  dairying  and  the  production  of  alfalfa  ha\ 
should  have1  a  prominent  place1  in  the  agricultural  development  of 
the  region. 

Generally  speaking,  the  >oil  i^  very  deficient  in  humus  (decaying 
vegetable  matter)  and  nitrogen."  Before  orcharding  and  gardening 
can  become  highly  successful  this  condition  must  be  corrected.  N 
other  way  has  yet  been  developed  by  which  this  can  be  'lone  so  suc- 
cessfully as  by  growing  alfalfa  and  feeding  it  to  good  daily  cows. 
When  a  good  stand  of  alfalfa  i^  once  established  its  roots  penetrate 

far   into   the  Subsoil.      When   the   alfalfa    is   plowed    up   and    the    roots 

decay,  humus  that   is  rich  in  nitrogen  is  thoroughly  distributed   in 

Bulletin  85,  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  entiUed     Washing- 
ton Soils." 
[Ctr.  80] 


14         SUGGESTIONS  TO   SETTLERS    IN    COLUMBIA   RIVES   VALLEY. 

the  soil  to  a  much  greater  depth  than  can  be  secured  by  the  applica- 
tion of  barnyard  manure.  Being  a  leguminous  plant,  alfalfa  is 
capable  of  using  atmospheric  nitrogen.  By  growing  alfalfa  the  soil 
is  enriched  with  nitrogen  at  less  expense  than  by  the  application  of 
commercial  fertilizers.  When  the  hay  is  fed  to  dairy  cows,  the 
farmer  will  be  able,  with  the  manure  from  the  stables,  to  fertilize  small 
areas  of  land  at  a  time,  upon  which  he  can  grow  almost  any  crop  he 
may  desire. 

When  a  good  stand  of  alfalfa  is  well  cared  for  it  is  very  successful. 
It  can  be  cut  three  or  four  times  each  year,  and  the  annual  yield 
of  hay  varies  from  5  to  8  tons  per  acre.  When  successfully  seeded  in 
the  fall  of  the  year,  from  2  to  5  tons  of  hay  to  the  acre  may  be  expected 
the  following  season.  The  productiveness  of  the  soil  will  be  built  up 
more  rapidly  if  the  hay  is  fed  to  good  dairy  cows  than  if  it  is  sold,  for 
from  75  to  90  per  cent  of  the  fertilizing  substance  of  the  hay  will  be 
contained  in  the  manure.  While  cows  will  not  give  the  maximum 
amount  of  milk  when  fed  alfalfa  hay  exclusively,  this  is  usually  a 
more  profitable  practice  than  to  pay  $25  to  $30  a  ton  for  grain  and 
mill  feed  with  which  to  balance  the  ration.  The  cows  should  be 
fed  in  stables  and  lots  during  the  entire  year,  for  the  land  is  too  valu- 
able to  be  used  for  pasture.  No  cow  should  be  kept  that  will  not  pro- 
duce 600  gallons  of  milk  yearly. 

Unless  a  farmer  has  plenty  of  manure  with  which  to  enrich  the 
soil,  all  of  his  land  should  be  sown  to  alfalfa  or  clover  just  as  soon  as  it 
is  ready  for  seeding.  No  attempt  should  be  made  to  grow  other  crops 
until  the  land  has  successfully  grown  alfalfa,  clover,  or  some  other 
humus-producing  crop  for  one  or  more  years  or  until  stable  manure 
can  be  obtained.  When  available,  manure  should  be  applied  liberally 
and  well  incorporated  into  the  soil.  A  light  application  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  is  of  little  benefit  except  to  keep  the  soil  from 
drifting.  Irrigation  should  be  frequent  enough  to  keep  the  soil  moist, 
so  that  the  manure  will  decay. 

THE  COMMERCIAL  ORCHARD. 

To  plant  and  care  for  an  orchard  until  it  is  bearing  profitably 
requires  several  years  and  much  labor  and  money.  For  this  reason, 
deciding  the  kind  of  fruit  to  be  grown  (whether  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
apricots,  or  cherries)  becomes  a  very  important  matter.  Having 
decided  the  kind  of  fruit  to  be  planted,  the  selection  of  varieties  is 
likewise  very  important.  This  should  be  done  with  a  great  deal  of 
care  and  study.  The  man  with  limited  means  can  not  afford  to 
experiment  with  new  varieties,  however  superior  they  may  be  repre- 
sented to  be.  Instead,  he  should  plant  the  standard  commercial 
varieties  that  have  given  the  best  satisfaction  in  the  Columbia  River 
Valley.     Opinions  have  differed  widely  regarding  this  matter  in  the 

[Cir.  60] 


8UOGE8TIONS    rO  BETTLEB8    in    COL1   UBIA    BIVEfl    VALLEY.  1  ."> 

past,  iinil  the  question  is  nol  fullj  settled  at  the  present  time  Foi 
this  reason  ii  is  difficult  to  saj  just  what  should  be  planted,  and  the 
following  recommendations  are  onlj  made  in  the  IiltIii  of  the  best 
obtainable  informal  ion 

There  are  many  orchards  in  the  vicinity  of  rlennewick,  Wash  .  that 
are  6  or  7  years  old  and  a  fe\t  that  are  12  or  14  years  old.  This  is  the 
oldest  and  most  highly  developed  district  in  the  sand}  soils  along  the 
Columbia  River  Considering  the  experience  of  this  district,  ii  would 
appear  that  winter  apple-  and  pears  are  the  most  promising  tree 
fruits  to  plant.  While  peaches,  apricot-,  and  cherries  can  be  pro- 
duced, they  do  not  bear  lull  crops  regularh  on  account  of  the  dam  i 
done  by  the  earlj  spring  frosts.  Although  apple-  and  pears  are 
sometimes  injured,  thej  are  much  hardier  than  peaches,  apricot-,  and 
cherries,  and  they  bear  more  regularrj  .  It  i-  probable  that  the  tender 
fruits  ma\  be  profitably  grown  by  using  smudges  and  orchard-heater 

pots  to  counteract  the  effect  of  frosts.  Since  most  of  the  tree  fruits 
blossom  during  the  latter   part  of   March  and    the  month  of   April,  a 

study  ol  Table  I.  page  5,  which  gives  the  date-  and  temperatures 
of  32°  or  lower  for  April  for  the  last  five  years,  will  -how  the  impor- 
tance of  making  provision  for  the  use  of  frost  preventivi 

Of    the    winter    apple-,    the    Wine-ap    ha-  proved    itself    especially 

adapted  to  the  irrigated  district-  with  low  altitude-  It  requires  a 
long  season  in  which  to  mature,  come-  into  bearing  earl}  .  i-  prolific, 
and  ship-  and  sells  well.      Some  of  the  other  varieties  that   are  being 

planted  are  Koine  Beauty,  Jonathan,  and  Esopus  (synonyms,  Esopus 
Spitzenburg  and  Spitzenburj 

Of  the  pear-,  the  Bartlett  i-  the  standard  commercial  variety. 
Some  are  planting  the  Cornice  and  the  Anjou. 

If  peaches,  apricot-,  and  cherries  are  planted,  the\  should  be  placed 
on  the  highest  ground,  where  the  air  drainage  is  best.  The  varieties 
that  are  usually  recommended  for  the  irrigated  valleys  are  as  follow-: 

Peaches. — Elberta,  Salway,  Early  Crawford,  Late  Crawford.  Poster, 
Hale,  and  Alexander.  The  Elberta  i-  the  standard  commercial  peach 
and  should  form  the  principal  part  of  the  orchard.  The  Salway  i-  an 
excellent  peach,  hut  i-  a  little  too  late. 

Apricots.      I  lenii-kirk  and  Moorpark. 

Cherries.  (Sweet  varieties  Napoleon  (synonym,  Royal  Ann  . 
Bing,  and  Lambert;  (sour  varieties)  Olivet  and  Richmond. 

POULTRY. 

Poultry  can  be  made  a  profitable  adjunct  to  fruit  raising,  especially 

Orcharding,  and  should  he  given  a  place  on  practically  every  farm  in 

the  Columbia  River  Valley.     Spokane.  Portland.  Tacoma,  and  Seattle 

"  For  a  discussion  of  the  use  ol  heater  pota  in  (  olondo  orchards,  Bee  the  I  >e«  ember, 
1909,  and  January,  1910,  cumbers  ol  [letter  Fruit. 

U'ir.  60] 


16         SUGGESTIONS   TO   SETTLEBS    IN    COLUMBIA   RIVER   VALLEY. 

furnish  large,  stable  markets  near  home,  and  the  demand  increases 
faster  than  the  supply.  Prices  are  constantly  rising  year  after  year, 
while  the  importations  of  eggs  and  poultry  from  other  States  are 
increasing.  Unless  one  has  had  some  experience  in  handling  poultry, 
however,  the  business  should  be  developed  gradually,  for  failure  is  too 
frequently  the  reward  of  those  who  plunge  into  the  business  without 
experience  and  knowledge  of  the  subject.  Some  very  helpful  publi- 
cations on  this  industry  will  be  found  listed  at  the  end  of  this  bulletin. 

SMALL  FRUITS  AND  GRAPES. 
SMALL    FRUITS. 

If  the  suggestions  previously  made  in  regard  to  improving  the 
soil  are  followed,  small  fruits,  grapes,  asparagus,  potatoes, tomatoes, 
onions,  and  many  other  crops  can  be  raised.  The  following  varieties 
of  small  fruits  are  suggested: 

Strawberries. — Clark  Seedling  (synonym,  Hood  River)  for  long 
shipments;  Magoon,  Marshall,  and  Warfield  for  local  use  and  short 
shipments. 

Dewberries. — Lucretia. 

Gooseberries. — Industry,  Smith  (synonym.  Smith's  Improved),  and 
Oregon  (synonym,  Oregon  Champion). 

Raspberries. — Cuthbert  and  Red  Antwerp. 

When  well  cared  for,  strawberries  should  be  very  profitable.  They 
mature  very  early  and  the  first  crates  sometimes  sell  for  $10  or  more 
each,  though  of  course  the  greater  part  of  the  crop  sells  for  very  much 
lower  prices.     The  first  blooms  are  often  injured  by  spring  frosts. 

Owing  to  the  very  high  price  commanded  by  the  first  ripe  fruit, 
some  way  should  be  devised  for  saving  the  first  blossoms.  One  way 
of  doing  this  is  to  use  cotton  cloth  for  covering  frames.  While  the 
vines  may  be  covered  in  many  ways,  the  following  method  is  sug- 
gested: On  either  side  of  beds  10  or  12  feet  wide  set  wide  boards  on 
their  edges.  The  cloth,  ordinary  unbleached  double-width  sheeting, 
is  nailed  to  the  upper  edge  of  one  of  the  boards.  The  other  edge  of 
the  cloth  is  nailed  between  1  by  2  inch  strips.  This  forms  a  roller, 
upon  which  the  cloth  is  rolled  when  the  beds  are  opened.  The  cloth 
is  just  wide  enough  to  permit  the  roller  to  hang  on  the  outside  of  the 
board  on  the  opposite  side  when  the  cloth  is  unrolled  and  spread 
across  the  bed.  The  sections  of  the  cloth  should  overlap  and  the 
ends  of  the  cold  frames  should  be  well  closed  up.  If  the  cloth  is 
oiled,  it  will  be  more  effective. 

GRAPES. 

The  following  varieties  of  grapes  are  recommended  for  this  district : 
American  varieties. — Moore   (synonym,  Moore's  Early),  Campbell 
(synonym,  Campbell's  Early),  Delaware,  Concord,  and  WordeiL 

[Cir.  00 J 


SUGGESTIONS    FO  SETTLERS    in    COL1    MBIA    RIVES    VALLEY.  IT 

European  varieties.     Alexandria    aj lym,  Muscat  of  Uexandria), 

Malaga,  Flame  Tokay,  and  Black  Hambi 

The  European  varieties  of  grapes  must  be  planted  with  tl icpec- 

tation  of  letting  the  vines  down  and  covering  them  well  everj  fall. 
Unless  this  is  done  the}  will  qo!  succeed,  for  the  winters  are  usuafiy 
9S\  ere  enough  to  Kill  the  vines  to  the  ground. 

TRUCK  CHOPS. 

\-r  \i:  \<.i   - 

'l'lic  eaiTj  season  of  the  irrigated  districts  along  the  Columbia 
River  makes  asparagus  a  verj  profitable  crop  to  those  who  will 
I  tain  I  lr  ii  properly  .  A  \  en  successful  asparagus  grower  in  the  \  icinitj 
of  Kciuirw  itk,  Wash.,  starts  n  <>n  sandj  soil  as  follows:  Furrows  arc 
laid  off  in  the  early  spring  aboul  i">  to  20  inches  apart.  After  scat- 
tering partly  decayed  stable  manure  in  the  furrows,  water  is  turned 
on  i"  soak  thoroughly  the  soil  and  the  manure.  Nitrate  of  soda  is 
then  applied  and  the  Boil  cultivated  while  yet  moist.  Seed  that  has 
been  soaked  in  warm  water  for  24  hours  is  planted  in  drills  laid  out 
over  the  furrows  in  which  the  ma  mi  re  and  nitrate  of  soda  were  applied. 
The  seed  is  bowu  in  the  drill  aboul  I  J  to  2  inches  apart,  and  when 
the  plant--  are  started  well  they  are  thinned  to  3  to  I  inches  apart. 
After  sowing  the  seed  the  land  is  irrigated  frequently  and  cultivated 
while  the  soil  is  damp.  Cultivating  while  the  soil  is  moist  keep-,  it 
from  drifting  so  easily  into  the  irrigating  furrow. 

When  the  plants  are  l  year  old  the\  are  transplanted  in  rows  l 
or  5  feel  apart.  FurroM s  s  inches  deep  arc  laid  off,  into  which  manure 
i-  scattered  and  soaked  as  when  planting  the  seed.  The  yearling 
plants  are  set  L8  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  The  crowns  are  set  6  to 
8  inches  belovi  the  surface  of  the  ground,  frrigation  is  frequent  and 
manure  is  liberally  used.  One  year  from  the  date  of  transplanting, 
some  begin  to  cut  the  shoots  for  market.  It  is  generally  conceded 
that  this  should  be  a  light  cutting  in  order  to  develop  the  most  profit- 
able bed.  By  purchasing  yearling  plants  for  transplanting,  one  year 
ma\    be  saved. 

!'<  >l  A  i  oi  s. 

Potatoes,  especially  the  early  varieties,  should  do  well  on  soil  that 
has  been  enriched  either  with  manure  or  l>\  groM  ing  clover  or  alfalfa 
for  one  or  more  years.  The  early  varieties  may  be  marketed  the  last 
of  .lime  or  the  Brsl  of  duly.  This  leaves  plenty  of  time  to  raise  such 
crop-,  as  heet-*.  turnips,  rutabagas,  and  cauliflower.  In  this  way  two 
crops  may  be  grown  on  the  same  land  during  the  year,  [f  desirable, 
a  green  manure  crop,  either  clover  or  hairy  vetch,  ma\  be  grown  and 
plowed  under  after  digging  the  potato* 

[Cti 


18         SUGGESTIONS   TO   SETTLERS    IN    COLUMBIA    BIVEB    VALLEY. 

MELONS. 

Watermelons  do  fairly  well  on  the  virgin  soil,  but  cantaloupes  are 
not  a  success  until  the  soil  has  been  improved  with  stable  manure 
or  green  manure,  or  by  growing  clover  or  alfalfa.  They  are  not 
profitable,  however,  unless  the  grower  has  a  market  near  at  hand. 
It  is  the  early  melons,  the  first  to  reach  the  market,  that  bring  the 
highest  prices.  Of  the  many  varieties  of  watermelons,  the  Monte 
Cristo  seems  to  give  the  best  results.  The  Rockyford  cantaloupe  is 
a  favorite  among  the  melon  growers. 

ONIONS. 

If  onions  are  grown  on  sandy  soil  they  must  be  well  protected 
from  the  wind  to  prevent  injury  from  the  drifting  soil.  On  such 
land  large  yields  must  not  be  expected  until  the  soil  has  been  im- 
proved. Onions  may  be  sold  either  in  the  cured  or  in  the  green 
state. 

Main  crop. — The  main,  or  summer,  crop  of  onions  is  cured  and  sold 
in  the  dry  stale.  The  long  dry  season  insures  the  thorough  curing 
of  the  bulbs.  One  of  the  secrets  of  onion  culture  on  sandy  land  is  to 
keep  the  soil  moist  from  the  time  the  seed  is  sown  until  the  plants 
are  well  established.  The  Yellow  Danvers  variety  is  recommended 
for  the  main  crop. 

Early  sj>rin</  crop. — The  early  spring  crop  is  sold  when  the  onions 
are  in  their  immature  or  green  state.  This  crop  may  be  grown  in  two 
ways: 

(1)  During  August — not  later  than  September  1 — the  ground 
to  be  planted  is  thoroughly  irrigated.  Furrows  are  then  laid  off  3 
or  4  inches  deep,  into  which  the  seed  is  drilled  quite  thickly.  The 
seed  is  covered  about  1  inch  dee]).  As  the  onions  grow,  the  soil  is 
worked  into  the  furrows.  Later  the  rows  are  ridged  up.  By  plant- 
ing the  seed  in  furrows  and  ridging  the  rows  up,  long  tender  stems  are 
produced. 

(2)  By  the  second  method  the  seed  is  sown  quite  thickly  during  the 
spring,  and  the  irrigation  and  cultivation  given  are  not  so  thorough  as 
with  the  main  crop.  In  this  way  small  bulbs  are  produced.  The 
onions  are  not  gathered  in  the  fall  but  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
held.  During  the  late  fall,  growth  is  resumed  and  green  onions  are 
ready  for  the  early  spring  market.  The  Prizetaker  variety  is  gener- 
ally used  for  the  green  crop. 

GREEN  MANURE  AND  COVER  CROPS. 

Green  manuring  is  plowing  under* green  crops.     It  is  one  of  the 

best  ways  of  increasing  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil,  as  well 
a-  the  quantity  of  vegetable  matter  present.  Cover  crops  are  usually 
grown  (luring  the  interval  between  regular  crops,  when  the  ground 

00] 


SUGGESTIONS    rO   8ETTLERS    IN    COL1    \ll;i\    RIVEB    VALLEY.  1(.» 

would  otherwise  be  bare.     \N  hen  the}   ha-,  ial  pui 

pose,  cover  crops  are  often  turned  undei  a  manui 

Plants  thai  have  pea  like  flowei  and  usuall)  produce  their  seed 
in  two-valved  pods,  such  as  peas,  bean  .  vetch,  clover,  and  alfalfa, 
are  called  legumes,  [f  thrift)  plants  of  thi>  family  be  carefulrj 
removed  from  the  Boil,  little  nodules  will  usually  be  found  upon  th 
roots.  These  nodules  varj  in  size  with  difTerenl  legumes  and  1 1 1 .- 1  \  be 
found  alone  or  in  clusters.  Thej  are  caused  bj  certain  bacteria  of  the 
soil  i Iimi  become  parasil ic  in  i he  roots. 

I>\  the  aid  "|*  these  bacteria  living  in  the  nodules,  leguminous  plants 
are  enabled  to  assimilate  the  atmospheric  nitrogen.  Since  nitrogen 
constitutes  approximately  four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere,  this  family 
of  plants  has  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  this  important  plant-food 
element.  If  the  nodule-forming  bacteria  are  not  present  in  the  soil, 
the  nodules  will  nol  form  <>n  the  roots,  and  the  plants  can  then  use 
only  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil.  The  failure  of  leguminous  crops  is 
sometimes  due  to  the  lack  of  these  bacteria. 

Module-forming  bacteria  ma}  be  supplied  in  two  ways,  namely,  by 
the  use  of  pure  cultures  of  the  bacteria  and  l>\  transferring  soil  from 
a  Held  where  the  crop  to  be  used  has  been  grown  successful!}  with 
nodules  on  the  roots.  From  200  to  300  pounds  of  the  ^>il  transferred 
are  scattered  over  each  acre  of  the  field  to  be  inoculated  and  imme- 
diatelj  mixed  with  tli.it  of  the  new  field  bj  plowing,  disking,  or  har- 
rowing.    If  left  exposed  to  the  sun  the  bacteria  are  soon  destroyed." 

It  has  been  previously  pointed  out  thai  the  soils  along  the  Columbia 
River  are  very  deficient  in  humus  and  nitrogen.  It  is  very  evident, 
therefore,  th.it  the  farmers  and  orchardists  of  this  region  should  use 
every  possible  opportunity  to  grow  humus-forming  crops.  Because 
of  their  ability  to  use  the  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere,  leguminous 
crops  should  be  used  when  possible.  The  ground  should  nol  be 
allowed  to  lie  idle,  hut  as  much  of  the  time  as  possible  it  should  be 
kept  growing  some  crop  thai  will  improve  the  soil. 

(  ri  ►ps   ro  usi 

The  following  green-manure  and  cover  crops  are  recommended: 
For  permanenl  crops  in  the  orchard  use  i>'<\  clover  or  alfalfa. 
Where  it  is  nol  necessarj  to  Lri\e  the  orchard  clean  cultivation  in 
order  to  conserve  moisture,  perhaps  no  better  practice  can  be  followed 
than  to  grow  red  clover  or  alfalfa  between  the  trees.  While  orchard 
cover  crops  are  often  used  for  ha\  the  land  will  be  improved  much 
more  rapidlx  if  the  growth  is  clipped  five  or  sis  times  during  I 
von  and  lefl  on  th<  ground  to  serve  as  a  mulch.     Where  it  is  desirable 

ling  the  u i  pure  cultures  of  the  b 

Bulletin  :'>!>.  entitled  culation,"  which  will  be  Benl  tr 

charge  upon  application  to  thi    :  iculture,  Washington,  D    > 

h'ii 


20         SUGGESTIONS   TO   SETTLERS    IN    COLUMBIA    RIVEB   VALLEY. 

to  plow  the  crop  under  occasionally,  clover  is  a  much  more  satisfac- 
tory crop  than  alfalfa,  because  the  latter  is  so  difficult  to  plow  and 
get  rid  of  and  the  roots  rot  so  slowly. 

(2)  For  early  fall  seeding  use  red  clover,  hairy  vetch,  rye,  or  wheat. 
K\e  or  wheat  are  frequently  sown  with  the  clover  or  vetch. 

(3)  For  late  fall  seeding,  use  rye,  wheat,  or  hairy  vetch. 

(4)  For  spring  or  early  summer  seeding,  use  red  clover,  hairy  vetch, 
peas,  spring  vetch,  rye.  wheat,  oats,  or  barley. 

It  is  frequently  possible  to  grow  green-manure  or  cover  crops  during 
the  summer  after  marketing  early  truck  crops  or  after  plowing  up  an 
old  strawberry  bed.  On  these  sterile  sandy  soils  hairy  vetch  some- 
times fails  to  make  a  satisfactory  growth  the  first  time  that  it  is 
sown,  because  of  the  lack  of  uodule-forming  bacteria.  Even  when 
this  is  the  case  thrifty  plants  with  nodules  on  the  roots  can  usually 
be  found  scattered  here  and  there  over  the  field.  By  plowing  the 
land  and  sowing  vetch  again  on  the  same  land,  the  second  crop 
should  he  a  success.  When  the  soil  is  once  supplied  with  the  proper 
bacteria  there  will  be  few  better  green-manure  and  cover  crops  than 
hairy  vetch.  When  sown  for  the  first  time,  either  the  seed  or  the 
soil  should  be  inoculated. 

The  purpose  of  these  crops  is  quite  fully  discussed  in  bulletins 
listed  at  the  close  of  this  circular,  and  for  that  reason  further  con- 
sideration is  not  here  necessary. 

WIND-BREAKS. 

While  objections  are  often  made  to  the  use  of  wind-breaks  they  are 
very  advantageous  wherever  orchards,  vineyards,  small  fruits,  or 
truck  crops  are  exposed  to  strong  winds.  Especially  is  this  true 
where  the  soil  is  sandy  and  subject  to  drifting.  iSince  the  prevailing 
winds  are  from  the  west  and  southwest,  the  principal  wind-breaks 
should  extend  north  and  south  or  approximately  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  of  the  wind. 

Some  of  the  more  important  points  to  be  remembered  in  the  selec- 
tion of  trees  for  wind-breaks  are  the  following:  Effectiveness  in 
checking  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  value  as  timber,  longevity,  diffi- 
culty in  starting,  inclination  to  harbor  orchard  pests,  habits  of 
encroachment  upon  the  areas  protected,  etc.  Few  trees  meet  all  of 
these  requirements.  When  a  single  variety  is  planted  few  trees  are 
as  effective  as  the  poplars,  especially  the  Lombardy  poplar.  They 
develop  rapidly,  branch  from  the  ground  up,  and  make  a  very  efficient 
wind-break  when  planted  close  together.  A  very  effective  wind- 
break can  be  made  by  planting  the  black  locust  and  the  Russian 
artemisia  together  in  the  same  row.  The  locusts  should  be  set  about 
S  feet  apart  in  the  row.  The  timber  of  the  locust  makes  valuable 
fence  posts. 
[fir.  60] 


SUUUESTIONjj    I"   m   I  i  M  i;.-    I  .\    COI.l    Ml-.  I  \    KIVEK    VALLEY, 


21 


The  artemisia  is  a  shrubbj  plan!  thai  is  started  from  7  inch  cutti 
Bel  12  to  l •">  inches  apart.  It  ahoultl  attain  a  lieighl  <>f  i  or  5  feel  the 
firs!  year  and  8  or  9  feel  the  second  year,  Low  wind-breaks  can  I"- 
made  l>\  planting  the  artemisia  alone  A  good  hedge  of  this  planl 
is  growing  <>n  the  experimenl  farm  <>l  the  State  College  al  Pullman, 
Wash.,  from  which  cuttings  ma\  be  obtained 


01  4itfk>- 


>#ini  — — rfia.M— 


Fi>.  .'      Up  u  igtu  '"'  i-  on  nnd;  soil  i 

When  the  land  w;v  cletted  low  posts  were  Kl .  upon  the  tops  of  whii  t  bed. 

id  of  burning  the  sagebrush,  11  «  is  bang  on  the  i 

Tin*  European  larch  instead  of  the  black  locusl  may  be  used  with 
the  artemisia.  It  will  not  spread  and  encroach  upon  the  protected 
area  as  much  as  the  locusl  <>r  t  lie  poplars  [ts  timber  also  makes  good 
fence  posts. 

Figure  2  illustrates  how  temporary  wind-breaks  may  be  made 
from  sagebrush. 

[fir. 


22         SUGGESTIONS    TO   SETTLERS    IX    COLUMBIA    I'JVi.i;    VALLEY. 

BULLETINS   OF   VALUE   TO   FARMERS   IN  THE    COLUMBIA   RIVER 

VALLEY. 

The  bulletins  in   the  following  list   arc  of  value   to  settlers  in   the 
Columbia  River  Valley: 

farmers'   bi  lletins,  r.  s.  department  of  agriculture. ° 

No.    51.  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

55.  The  Dairy  Herd;  lis  Formation  and  Management. 

61.  Asparagus  Culture. 

63.  Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm. 
113.  The  Apple  and  How  to  Grow  It. 

127.  Important  Insecticides:  Directions  for  Preparation  and  Use. 
138.  Irrigation  in  Field  and  Garden. 
lot.  The  Home  Fruit  Garden:  Preparation  and  Care. 

156.  The  Homo  Vineyard. 

157.  The  Propagation  of  Plants. 

158.  How  to  Build  Small  Irrigation  Ditches. 
L81.   Pruning. 

198.  Strawberries. 

213.  Raspberries. 

220.  Tomatoes. 

231.  Spraying  tor  Cucumber  and  Melon  Diseases. 

241.  Butter  Making  on  the  Farm. 

242.  An  Example  of  Model  Farming. 

254.  Cucumbers. 

255.  The  Home  Vegetable  Garden. 

263.  Practical  Information  for  Beginners  in  Irrigation. 

278.  Leguminous  Crops  for  Green  Manuring. 

287.  Poultry  Management. 

315.  Progress  in  Legume  Inoculation. 

339.  Alfalfa. 

354.  Onion  Culture. 

355.  A  Successful  Poultry  and  Dairy  Farm. 

357.  Methods  of  Poultry  Management  at   the  Maine  Agricultural   Experiment 

Station. 
373.   Irrigation  of  Alfalfa. 
375.  Care  of  Food  in  the  Home. 

386.  Potato  Culture  on  Irrigated  Farms  of  the  West . 
399.  Irrigation  of  Grain. 
104.  Irrigation  of  Orchards. 

BULLETINS    OF   THE    OFFICE    OF    EXPERIMENT    STATIONS. 

No.  L08.   Irrigation  Practices   Among   Fruil    Growers  on   the   Pacific   Coast.     Price 
15  cents. 
177.  Evaporation  Losses  in  Irrigation  and  Water  Requirements  of  Crops.     Price. 
15  cents. 

"  All  persons  interested  in  farming  should  obtain  Circulars  2  and  4  of  the  Division 
of  Publications,  (J.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  which  contain  lists  of  the  publica- 
tions of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  free  distribution.  These  circulars  will  he 
forwarded  free  of  cost  upon  application  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  Washington, 
D.  C. 

[Clr.  60] 


SUGGESTIONS    I"   >i   Mill:-    i  \    COL1    Miu  \    RIVER    VALLEY.         28 

No.   lsl    Mechanic  il  Ti         I  Pumpi       Plan  I        P 

188    Irrigation  in  the  Yakima  Voile)       Price    15  ci 

I  listribution  ol  U  ater  in  tt  i      Prii  •     10 

209    Irrigation  in  <  >n    on      P 

21  I    Irrigation  in  \\  aahington      I'm  •     10 

BULLETINS  OF  THE  OREGON     kGRICULTURA]     EXPERIMENT     STATION. 

Dl  PARTM1  N LEO!     EXTENSION 

No,      I.  Feeding  loi  l 

OBNERA1     in   I  i  I   m 

, ').  Insecticides  and  Fungicidee 
104.  Pollination  ol  the  Apple. 
106.  <  uliuii'  of  Small  Fi 

Spra)  ing  for  Peach  Frail  8p 

BULLETINS  Ol    Mil    u  ISHING  i<  >\    kGRICULTURA]    I  \  n  i;  i  \i  i  \  i    BTATIOH 

QBNBRAl     BULLETINS 

Some  Important  Plant  Diseases  in  Washington. 
B      Raspberries  and  Blackberries 

POFl   LAB    BULLETINS 

No.     3.  Pruning  Frail  Trees. 

B  < Orchard  <  !over  <  Irope. 

11.  Commercia]  Potato  Growing. 

12.  <  are  of  Milk  on  the  Farm. 

13.  Spraying  Calendar  for  L909. 
1 1.  Planting  an  Apple  <  trchard. 

17.  The  Single  Spray  for  the  Codling  Moth. 

18.  Growing  Raspberries  and  Blackberries  in  Washington. 

23.  Trees  for  Washington. 

24.  The  Pruning  of  Apple  Trees 

The  Farmers1  Bulletin--  may  be  secured  without  cosl  upon  appli- 
cation to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  ('.:  the  bulle- 
tins of  the  Oregon  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  by  applying  to 
the  director  of  the  station,  at  Corvallis,  Oreg.;  the  bulletins  of  the 
Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  by  applying  to  the 
director  of  the  station,  at  Pullman.  Wash.;  and  tin-  bulletins  of  the 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations  by  sending  the  price  of  each  bulletin 
to  the  Superintendent  of  Document-,  Government  Printing  Office, 
A\  ashington,  D.  ('.     Stamps  and  personal  checks  will  not  be  accepted. 

Approved : 

.1  imes   Wn  SON, 

St  fi  tan/. 

Washington,  D.  ( '..  March  SI,  1910. 

[dr.  60] 

o 


UNIVERSITY  OF  FLORIDA 


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